1. LIFE OF MOHAMMED

Begining

Mohammed was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly first 52 years of his life (c. 570–622). This period is generally divided into two parts, before and after declaring himself a prophet.

Childhood and early life

Mohammed was born about the year 570 A.D.  and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi al-awwal. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, one of prominent and prosperous families of Mecca. The Banu Hashim clan was part of the Quraysh tribe. Tradition places Mohammed's birth in the year of elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Ethiopean Aksumite king who brought elephants with his army.

Mohammed lost his father, Abdullah, six months before birth. Soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants. Mohammed stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Mohammed lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became orphan. For the next two years, he was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd-al-Mutallib, of the Banu Hashim clan, but when Mohammed was eight, his grandfather also died. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim. During 6th century Mecca there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes as time was hard. Mohammed's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him.

While still in his teens, Mohammed accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining experience in commercial trade, the only career open to Mohammed as an orphan. Islamic tradition states that when Mohammed was either eleven or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who predicted Mohammed's career as prophet of God.

Little is known of Mohammed during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is difficult to separate history from legend. It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean sea. Due to his upright character he was soon noticed. Mohammed acquired the nicknameof “al-Amin”, meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq" meaning "truthful" and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. His reputation attracted Khadijah, a 40-year-old wealthy widow, to appoint him as her representative for trade. Later Khadijah offered a proposal of marriage to Mohammed in 595 A.D. Mohammed consented to the marriage. Marriage between Mohammed and Khadija was a happy one. Khadija bore six children for Mohammed but only Fatima, a daughter survived till adulthood.

In 605 A.D. Mohammed was involved in a well-known incidence about setting the black stone in place in the wall of the Kaba. The Black Stone, a sacred object, had been removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaba. The leaders of Mecca could not agree on which clan should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place. They agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to choose. That man was 35-year-old Mohammed, five years before his first revelation. He asked for a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre. Then he asked all clan leaders to hold the cloth. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, and then Mohammed set the stone in place, satisfying the honour of all.

Beginnings of the Revelations

Mohammed adopted the practice of praying alone for several weeks every year in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca. Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel appeared to him in the year 610 A.D. and commanded Mohammed to recite verses which would later be included in Quran. There is a consensus that the first words of the Quran to be revealed were the beginning of Surah 96.1. Upon receiving his first revelations, he was deeply distressed. After returning home, Mohammed was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin. He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed. Shi'a tradition maintains that Mohammed was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather Mohammed welcomed him as if he was expecting. The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years (a period known as fatra) during which Mohammed felt depressed and further gave himself to prayers and meditation. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: "Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken thee, nor is He displeased."

Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)". It is possible Mohammed used to undergo a trance like situation during revelation and later felt exhausted. Mohammed was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages. Mohammed's mission was mainly to preach what is revealed to him that is Quran. The Quran commands Mohammed to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord (only God) and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God. There is no God but God (Allah). Monotheism is the centre theme. Revelations, emphasizes Mohammed to warn the unbelievers for afterlife (judgment day) punishment. Occasionally the Quran warns unbelievers about calamities they face in this world by citing examples from the history of extinct communities. Mohammed not only warned those who rejected God's revelation but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listened to the divine words of Quran and served God.

The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill newborn girls.

According to Muslim tradition, Mohammed's wife Khadijah was the first to believe he was a prophet. She was followed by Mohammed's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib , close friend Abu Bakr and adopted son Zaid.  Around 613 A.D, Mohammed began to preach to the public. Most Meccans ignored him and mocked him, though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the position in their tribe; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.

Hostilities of Meccans

According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Mohammed delivered verses that condemned idol worship. However, the Quranic sources maintain that it began as Mohammed started public preaching. Even though there were only a few followers, Mohammed became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life. Kaba was surrounded by around 300 temples of Arab deities that Mohammed threatened to destroy. Mohammed's denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Kaba. The powerful merchants attempted to convince Mohammed to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused both.

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Mohammed and his followers. A slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf, who used to place a heavy rock on his chest to force him to re- convert. Mohammed was ridiculed and taunted but nobody dared to harm him physically. Mohammed was protected from physical harm as he belonged to the Banu Hashim clan and protected by his uncle, Abu Talib leader of the Hashim clan.

Mohammed, desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, either from fear or in the hope of succeeding more readily in this way, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah, and appealing for their intercession. Mohammed later retracted these verses at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that those verses were whispered by the devil himself. This episode is known as "The Story of the Cranes”. These verses are also known as- ”Satanic Verses”. Some scholars argued against the historic authenticity of these verses on various grounds. While this incident received acceptance by early Muslims, it was strongly objected to by Muslim theologians from the 10th century onwards. The objections continued on this point until rejection of these verses eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.

But the fact remained. Though Mohammed was not harmed, life of few Muslims in Mecca was not safe. In 615 A.D., some of Mohammed's followers emigrated to the Ethiopean Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor. This was an attempt to save the fledgling Muslim community. Quraysh tribe did make an attempt to stop the emigration and later on complained to Ethiopean authority for their banishment. But Christian ruler preferred to protect the first Muslim colony.

In 617 A.D., the leaders of Makhzum and BanuAbd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott of Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Mohammed. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective. During this period, Mohammed was able to preach publicly only during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs were suspended.

Last years in Mecca before Hijra

Mohammed's wife Khadijah and Uncle Abu Talib both died in 619 A.D., the year thus being known as the “year of sorrow”.  With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Mohammed. Soon afterwards, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection over Mohammed. This placed Mohammed in danger of life; withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Mohammed then visited Taif, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger. Mohammed was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im ibn Adi made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.

Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaba during holy pilgrimage months. Mohammed took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina). The Arabs of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there with such belief. They also hoped to gain supremacy over Jews with help of Mohammed and the new faith. Arabs of Yathrib were also jealous of Mecca’s importance as the place of pilgrimage. They expected to secure similar importance for Yathrib with Mohammed. There were already some converts to Islam there. In June 620 A.D., seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Mohammed. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the "Second pledge of al-aqabah". Following the pledges at Aqabah, Mohammed encouraged his followers to immigrate to Medina. As with the emigration to Ethiopia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave. Yathrib was renamed to Medina (city) of Prophet or Medina in short.

First phase of Mohammed’s life ended here. Bulk of Quran was already written. Concept of Islam and rules governing life of Muslims were framed up. Up till then, Mohammed tried to preach Islam to the people in Mecca through reasoning and tried to impress them by his own conviction. Till now, he did not use violence or deceit for propagating Islam. He could convert about 150 persons to Islam during his nine years of preaching till he left Mecca. Now, second phase of his life in Medina was about to begin. In his second phase of life, Mohammed would not be having peaceful presence of Khadijah, his only wife for 25 years and his uncle.

In the second phase of preaching of Islam Mohammed would use both violence and deceit extensively.  Unfortunately he would be successful.

Quranic verses written in Mecca

The Mecca Quran was all about spirituality, acceptance, and inner cleansing through submission to the word of Allah. This earlier part of the Quran also dictated many of the rules that individual Muslims must perform and abide in their day-to-day lives. The Mecca Quran formed a basis for a religion that bridged some of the gaps and controversies between the Christians and the Jews. It was an attempt at a compromise that would appeal to both Jews and Christians. At the same time pagan Arabs can also get attracted due to its Arab origin. Either way, Mohammed set about to preach his revelations and gain converts to unify all communities of Arabs. The major obstacle in Mohammed’s efforts was sound economic condition of Mecca and most people were quite content with their current way of life. When people are happy and things are going well, people are usually not open to change as change may upset the balance or whatever that gives them this comfort and wealth. With time, Mohammed became more vocal as he was probably very frustrated that so few were willing to accept his preaching of Allah. This led to his forced departure from Mecca.

Second Phase of Prophet’s life

Second phase of Mohammed’s life starts with Hijra. Mohammed left Mecca in June 622 A.D. and reached Medina after 40 days and lived there till death ten years after. This ten years actually changed fortune of Islam as religion.

Hijra

In June 622 A.D., warned of a plot to assassinate him, Mohammed secretly escaped out of Mecca with Abu Bakr. Mohammed and his followers immigrated to the city of Yathrib, 320 kilometres north of Mecca, in several steps. Yathrib was soon renamed Madinat un-Nabi, literally "the City of the Prophet", but un-Nabi was soon dropped, so its name in English is Medina, meaning "the city". The Muslim year during which the Hijra occurred was designated the first year of the Islamic Calendar by Umar in 638 or 17 AH.

At that time, Medina was inhabited by several Jew and Arab communities. These people were continuously fighting each other over last hundred years. The first thing Mohammed did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina, was to draft a document known as the “Constitution of Medina”. This established a kind of federation among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca. This document specified rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including the Muslim community) to other communities, specifically the Jews and other people of the book. It was the first Islamic state.

Symbolism of Kaba

Soon Mohammed took a decisive turn towards Arab nationalism and steered Islam away from other Abrahamic religions.

Initially Mohammed promulgated several ordinances to win over the numerous and wealthy Jewish population of Medina. These were rescinded by the Jews and they insisted on preserving the entire Mosaic Law. Jews did not recognize Mohammed as a prophet as well.

On 11 February 624 A.D., while praying in the Masjid al-Quiblatain in Medina, Mohammed received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Mohammed adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer. This was a change Mohammed incorporated signifying his distance from Jewish people who refused to accept him. This symbolic gesture made Islam an Arabic religion and soon attracted more followers.

Beginning of Armed Conflicts

In Medina Mohammed faced the responsibility of providing for a fairly large community without much source of income. Economically uprooted with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans, initiating armed conflict with Mecca. Mohammed delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans. This started armed conflicts. In ten years from Hijra, Mohammed led or ordered about 200 expeditions, most of which were for loot and subjugation of new land & new people. During this period Mohammed lost only one battle, battle of Uhud. Series of victories emboldened Muslims and very quickly Muslim domination expanded around Medina. Scores of Arab converted to Islam. In 630 A.D. Mohammed conquered Mecca. Next year he defeated tribes of the East and finally he defeated northern Arabs and conquered city of Caif in early 632 A.D. Whole of Arab was under Mohammed’s command by the time he expired.

Quranic verses in the Last ten years

Initially, Mohammed continued his preaching and search for converts among various tribes including Jews of Medina. But life for Mohammed and his followers was difficult due to lack of finance. This was resolved when Mohammed was revealed; allowing not only raiding of the trade caravans, but such actions were blessed and raiders were praised. Thereafter raiding of caravans was a norm. This naturally upset many of the merchants who were dependent on these caravans for their livelihood. Meccans tried to take on Muslims by sending at least three expeditions. In the battle of Uhud Mohammed was critically injured but survived. Mohammed needed fighting spirit of his followers to just survive. Naturally revelations of this time were violent in nature. On the other hand, Jewish tribes of Medina rejected teachings proselytized by Mohammed. Mohammed could not forgive Jews for this. He had originally ruled that Muslims to pray facing Jerusalem, but the opposition from the Jews had him replace Jerusalem as the center of faith to Mecca. Non-acceptance of Islam and Prophet Mohammed made Jews Mohammed’s principal enemy. This conflict escalated finally, leading to attack of Banu-Nadir Jews by the forces of Mohammed.

During this period Mohammed started to reveal Medinan part of the Quran. His newer revelations were more violent than Meccan verses and had the Jews as the primary focus of this violence. This Medinan Quran also incorporated justification for violence, caravan raiding, destroying, looting and enslaving opposing communities and occupying property of the defeated.  Arab tribes who thrived on raiding & looting were attracted and joined this newer form of Islam as dictated by Mohammed. These new enthusiasts supplied the bulk of men at Mohammed’s command. Now Mohammed had to keep this army of new adherents busy and therefore he continued expeditions one after another. Violence fed violence. Death of Mohammed stopped the flow of Quran at this stage.

Death

Mohammed died on Monday, 8 June 632 A.D., in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, after suffering a brief illness. He was buried where he died in Aisha's house.

Conclusion

Mohammed was once asked that if two verses of Quran contradict each other, then which verse should be followed. Mohammed clarified that later verse supersedes earlier verse. That is why one must read the whole Quran and not listen to and decide about Islamic preaching only on quotes of individual Surah. The fact that such Surah exist that have opposite intent and meanings should be noted so that one can understand the reality. 

Quran forbids arrival of another Prophet. Quran forbids any change in Islamic way of life. Islam declares any Muslim as Apostate who tries to bring change. Therefore Muslims are doomed to live in Sixth century Arab mental frame which is definitely not conductive to modern life and thinking. The result is confusion, violence and finally terrorism. Islamic terrorism will continue to trouble all globe as long as Islam continues without change.

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